Police Ombudsman of Northern Ireland and the This also holds true for writers whose first language is not English. If an officer is not allowed to question a supervisor within a department without being subjected to aggressive, demeaning, or dismissive behaviors from that supervisor, officers are more prone totreat community members who question them in the same manner. Knowledge about Gender in Organized Crime, Gender and Different Types of Organized Crime, Organized crime and Terrorism - International Legal Framework, International Terrorism-related Conventions, Organized Crime Convention and its Protocols, Theoretical Frameworks on Linkages between Organized Crime and Terrorism, Typologies of Criminal Behaviour Associated with Terrorism, Terrorism, Crime and Trafficking in Cultural Property, Intellectual Property Crime and Terrorism, Exploitation of Natural Resources and Terrorism, Module 1: Migrant Smuggling as a Specific Crime Type, UNTOC & the Protocol against Smuggling of Migrants, Migrant Smuggling vis-a-vis Other Crime Types, Module 2: Protection of Rights of Smuggled Migrants, Assistance and Protection in the Protocol, International Human Rights and Refugee Law, Positive and Negative Obligations of the State, Smuggled Migrants & Other Categories of Migrants, Module 3: Criminal Justice Response to Migrant Smuggling, Module 4: Prevention and Non-Criminal Justice Responses to Migrant Smuggling, Non-Criminal Law Relevant to Smuggling of Migrants, Complementary Activities & Role of Non-criminal Justice Actors, Macro-Perspective in Addressing Smuggling of Migrants, Module 5: Smuggling of Migrants in the Broader Context of Migration and its Drivers, Humanitarianism, Security and Migrant Smuggling, Module 6: Defining the Concept of Trafficking in Persons, Distinction between Trafficking in Persons and Other Crimes, Misconceptions Regarding Trafficking in Persons, Module 7: Prevention of Trafficking in Persons, Monitoring, Evaluating & Reporting on Effectiveness of Prevention, Module 8: Human Rights-Based Approach to Trafficking in Persons, Protection under the Protocol against Trafficking in Persons, State Responsibility for Trafficking in Persons, Principle of Non-Criminalization of Victims, Module 9: Criminal Justice Responses to Trafficking in Persons, Criminal Justice Duties Imposed on States, Current Low Levels of Prosecutions and Convictions, Challenges to an Effective Criminal Justice Response, Rights of Victims to Justice and Protection, Module 10: Role of Civil Society and the Private Sector in Countering Trafficking in Persons, Module 11: SOM & TIP - Differences and Commonalities, Vulnerability and Continuum between SOM & TIP, Module 12: Children as Smuggled Migrants & Victims of Trafficking, Protecting Smuggled and Trafficked Children, Children Alleged as Having Committed Smuggling or Trafficking Offences, Module 13: Gender Dimensions of Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants, Basic Terms - Gender and Gender Stereotypes, International Legal Frameworks and Definitions of TIP and SOM, Key Debates in the Scholarship on TIP and SOM, Module 14: Links between Cybercrime, Trafficking in Persons and Smuggling of Migrants, Use of Technology to Facilitate TIP and SOM, Technology Facilitating Trafficking in Persons, Using Technology to Prevent and Combat TIP and SOM, Module 1: Illicit Markets for Wildlife, Forest & Fisheries Products, Locations and Activities relating to Wildlife Trafficking, Module 2: International Frameworks for Combating Wildlife Trafficking, CITES & the International Trade in Endangered Species, Module 3: Criminal Justice Responses to Wildlife Trafficking, Investigation Measures and Detection Methods, Module 4: Illegal Exploitation of Wild Flora, Wild Flora as the Target of Illegal Trafficking, Purposes for which Wild Flora is Illegally Targeted, Module 5: Sustainable Livelihoods and Community Engagement, Background: Communities and conservation: A history of disenfranchisement, Incentives for communities to get involved in illegal wildlife trafficking: the cost of conservation, Incentives to participate in illegal wildlife, logging and fishing economies, International and regional responses that fight wildlife trafficking while supporting IPLCs, Mechanisms for incentivizing community conservation and reducing wildlife trafficking, Other challenges posed by wildlife trafficking that affect local populations, Apr. In such cases, ad hoc commissions are set-up to establish the facts of the case, hold senior management of the police to account before the parliament, and make recommendations for improving police governance in the future. This ruling has led to the creation of the so-called "Garrity warning" used in internal investigations. Honesty has been singled out as a virtue for millennia. On the contrary, in such settings, it is crucial to promote international and regional standards, illustrate how countries in transition to democracy in other parts of the world reformed their accountability structures and established police oversight mechanisms; and engage students to discuss preconditions for such oversight actors to be effective in their own countries. endstream endobj startxref Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2015, 16(3), 75-109. C. Helping external auditors with the financial statement audit. Writing Clear, Effective PoliceReports: No English Degree Required. W~l*\ps;E$m[)[Spfa8`GjOm">.bDs]CmF=1='V+UCr[[) 50m{qA'[7#TJ5K7Dk9e?5*$,eowfLQ2t{q].K3y/:*RTfE=ivOAj'i4_+y$XlO3U]UN.po_. All rights reserved. One of the most fundamental roles of parliaments across the world is to draft, amend and enact laws. Conversely, when officers are part of an organizational culture where they perceive fair, respectful and transparent interactions; they will treat the community in a similar fashion. Leadership Spotlight: A Return to Civility, Leadership Spotlight: Indispensable Guidance, Leadership Spotlight: Confidence in the Face of Challenges, Leadership Spotlight: Engaging Millennials in the Workplace, Leadership Spotlight: Importance of Cybersecurity, Community Outreach Spotlight: Jamming Hoopsfest. Discuss the importance of accurate and legible writing for both, internal and external statements and why clear, comprehensible writing is critical. However, if such laws are not in line with international standards, governments and their agencies may tend to over-classify information or impose other unnecessary barriers, which can compromise the role of the media. As stated earlier, in the framework of laws, police officers often have a wide degree of discretion in exercising their powers. Contemporary issues relating to non-discrimination and fundamental freedoms, Module 1: United Nations Norms & Standards on Crime Prevention & Criminal Justice, 1. Leadership Spotlight: Hey, Did You Hear About? Independent Office for Police Conduct in England and Wales, the Officer Survival Spotlight: Accidental Deaths Among Law Enforcement Officers, Leadership Spotlight: Your Leadership Is Your Life Story (Part 1 of 2), Officer Survival Spotlight: Arrest Situations - Understanding the Dangers, Leadership Spotlight: Your Leadership Is Your Life Story (Part 2 of 2), Officer Survival Spotlight: Preventing Assaults - Assessing Offender Perceptions. Parliaments can use this function to promote the incorporation of ethical and integrity standards to the selection and appointment processes of police chiefs. Module 14 on Professional Ethics of the E4J University Module Series on Integrity and Ethics provides more information on integrity standards and ethics for specific professions.). The points listed above can be considered as traditional roles of the conventional media in overseeing the police. Usually, the people in charge determine the level of writing in classrooms and agencies. 288 0 obj <> endobj Some potential benefits are: Complainants are given a place to voice concerns outside of the law enforcement agency. 4. %%EOF Long before the first edition of The Leadership Challenge, the United States Marine Corps and other military organizations were teaching similar leadership behaviors. Justifying Punishment in the Community, 1. Experienced officers higher up in the career ladder say that they could do a better job teaching report writing or reviewing statements if they possessed a stronger background in English. Civil society and the media have an ancillary, yet essential, role in the police accountability system. Leadership Spotlight: The Leader Knows Best? The Need. Once the investigation is complete, the findings of the investigation are sent to the police service (for disciplinary complaints) or to the public prosecutor (for complaints concerning criminal offences). 0000001581 00000 n Nevertheless, civil society and media act as 'watchdogs' and bridge police accountability and the public opinion. The first degree of control in any police accountability system is the internal control mechanisms within the police service. %PDF-1.6 % Most of the other IPCBs comply with the regular procedure of submitting investigation reports to either the police or the prosecution for disciplinary sanctions or prosecution. For this discussion, we will focus on the completing of statements for both law enforcement and corrections. However, external stakeholders mention people who experience the implementation of law enforcement programs, including community and partners. People associate writing with workbooks and grammar tests from their youth. A thorough scrutiny of the proposed police budget might reveal unnecessary procurements, or areas with high risk of corruption. Would an English teacher serve as a better resource? Created by FindLaw's team of legal writers and editors | Last updated March 15, 2018. Analytical thinker who develops human-centered yet . IPID, If they demand quality, the people they are teaching or supervising will slow down, proofread, seek assistance, and submit superior reports. As a result, recruits often dread report writing more than any other subject in their training. Those institutions and individuals involved in the teaching of criminology, criminal justice, law enforcement and related subjects should be familiar with factors and forces, internally and. Their oversight functions are more indirect to those of the judiciary, parliament and independent oversight mechanisms, since they do not have a formal mandate to authorize, scrutinize or investigate police actions. Leadership Spotlight: A Calm, Focused Mind, Community Outreach Spotlight: FBI Explorers, Officer Wellness Spotlight: Prevention and Early Detection of Heart Disease, Leadership Spotlight: The Connected Leader, Community Outreach Spotlight: National Faith and Blue Weekend, Crime Prevention Spotlight: Solving Homicides with Trading Cards, Leadership Spotlight: Effectively Managing Personnel, Community Outreach Spotlight: New Bern Noble Knights, Leadership Spotlight: Addressing Disengagement, Community Outreach Spotlight: Cooking with Cops, Russellville, Arkansas, Police Department, Granite County, Montana, Sheriffs Office, Louisiana Office of Alcohol and Tobacco Control, Wayland, Massachusetts, Police Department, Fayetteville, West Virginia, Police Department, Fredericksburg, Virginia, Police Department, Jefferson County, Washington, Sheriffs Office, Starkville, Mississippi, Police Department, Jefferson Township, New Jersey, Police Department, San Francisco, California, Police Department, Lake City, South Carolina, Police Department, Franklin, New Hampshire, Police Department, County of Plymouth, Massachusetts, Sheriffs Department, University of Nevada, Reno, Police Department, New Glasgow, Nova Scotia, Police Department, Middleburg Heights, Ohio, Police Department, North Miami Beach, Florida, Police Department, San Juan County, Washington, Sheriffs Office, Colorado State University Police Department, Manchester, Connecticut, Police Department, Anson County, North Carolina, Sheriffs Office, Sanbornton, New Hampshire, Police Department, Fitchburg, Massachusetts, Police Department, Martinsville, Virginia, Police Department, Mount Hope, West Virginia, Police Department. 87). Internal and external communication styles - Internal and External Communication Styles BPA/ May 27, - StuDocu Internal and external communication styles A paper on internal and external communication styles University University of Phoenix Course Public Sector Communications (BPA 200) Uploaded by Sciatta Stevquoah Academic year 2018/2019 Helpful? There is no doubt that such mechanisms can function most effectively in democratic societies, where there is an established culture of transparency and accountability, a tradition of participatory and inclusive policymaking; constitutional provisions for safeguarding human rights; robust legal and institutional framework establishing the role, powers and functions of oversight actors, and resources for oversight actors to carry out their duties effectively. Collection and analysis of disaggregated data by age, gender, and where relevant, other protected characteristics (such as race and ethnic/religious identities) in the exercise of policing duties: The collection, and regular review of disaggregated data would inherently serve as an internal accountability mechanism, because such a proactive review would allow for identification of trends and early recognition of potentially problematic practices. It is imperative, therefore, that police services develop comprehensive professional standards (codes of conduct), providing clear guidance on the exercise of policing duties and powers in practice. Throughout the investigation, police services should respect, protect and fulfil the rights of victims and complainants. Leadership Spotlight: Are You the Single Point of Failure? Once again, the hierarchical set-up and the mandate of inspectorates vary across countries. Laws restricting access to information and criminalizing journalistic activity are amongst the primary legal challenges. Otherwise, why have a matrix at all? The '. Improper procurement, registration, storage, maintenance and tracing of weapons and ammunition would lead to major accountability gaps and render any internal and external investigations ineffective. Data on complaints should be systematically reviewed and analysed by the police together with external expert groups. OuimetG. Dynamics of narcissistic leadership in organizations. However, there is no country which has Context for Use of Force by Law Enforcement Officials, 3. It is also important to note that IPCBs are not the only independent oversight institutions in a police accountability system. The While many of its criminal laws and sanctions are similar to those of other states, California is unique in a number of ways. Brian N. ODonnell is a lieutenant with the City of Charlottesville, Virginia, Police Department. Protection of Especially Vulnerable Groups, Module 5: Police Accountability, Integrity and Oversight, 1. There is a growing realization that police are, perhaps, more effective in reducing fear of crime than having an unequivocal effect on actual crime figures, and a greater understanding that perceptions of police and, in turn, perception of citizens are a crucial component in the coproduction of public safety. 2. 10. Leadership Spotlight: Compassion in Law Enforcement. The widespread use of social media platforms, and the sharing of video footage of police abuse (either through recording of by-standers, witnesses or even victims; or the disclosure of CCTV footage) often draw significant public attention to an incident in a short span of time. Effective writing involves organizing and expressing facts and ideasskills people develop from the time they learn to speak. Most countries have information classification laws to protect national security interests. Both the activities of the police and the crucial work of the aforementioned oversight actors would be largely unknown to the general public if it were not for the media. Overview of Restorative Justice Processes. However, the entire incident had been filmed by a passerby, and was posted on social media. There are certain types of policing functions such as This section provided an overview of actors and oversight mechanisms to ensure police accountability. Crippling for an agencys morale, and something the author has observed is when commonly accepted department practices that are technically violations of policy, are brought to bear against an officer as reprisal for perceived slights/offenses rather than for a legitimate disciplinary purpose. Gender-Based Discrimination & Women in Conflict with the Law, 2. Models for Delivering Legal Aid Services, 7. External is how we see the world around us. Picture an officer typing on a laptop in a patrol car late at night. fwIm ^ Qgt0yI iHe9T%+Pbd'x$vO|-MrcN+F}*GR4;$v[^MTs4 D"^xL,($OA`a)(X7cG* uRsJWc)eR^#I;oXP#Y(Pg'k_o&yd5NHz+ 8wKBK-NtC,"l(ahDhJcBRa$A3#-&X[Ib2~v"cgn@(_@Kb$P;4Bgc9 C5+ It is important to be generous with sharing expertise and seeking opportunities to sharpen skills and expand knowledge. hb```Jf.a !u @enZ l0q`vZSs,ypsv<8AAIAA@8[iN YX vlk/,gbx/}'gR %#(,V` 3{Ek4fa`Ug@ @6: Roles and Responsibilities of Legal Aid Providers, 8. The positive contribution of effective accountability mechanisms to public trust in police is acknowledged in the literature (Goldsmith, 2005). While the extent of the executive's role depends on the administrative and governance structure of a state, the executive contributes to police accountability in various ways, at all three stages. Leadership Spotlight: Where is Your Bottom Line? Police officers often have heard that the most powerful instrument they carry is a pen.1 Unfortunately, writing reports sometimes intimidates recruits, instructors, administrators, and even seasoned officers. Oversight can help hold the police or sheriff's department accountable for officer's actions. Conflict in the workplace: A 10-year review of toxic leadership in higher education. This example illustrates the potential of social and other forms of media to ensure that appropriate action is taken. Parliamentary oversight has certain shortcomings and challenges with scrutinizing the police. Look for a box or option labeled Home Page (Internet Explorer, Firefox, Safari) or On Startup (Chrome). When police actions constitute (or are suspected of constituting) a violation of the criminal code, judicial institutions investigate, prosecute, judge and, if necessary, sentence the police officers involved. The fulfilment of the right to a remedy, as stipulated by the This results in individuals who never learn how to find and fix their mistakes. Lt. ODonnell is currently assigned to the Patrol Division as the 2nd Shift Commander. It was established in 2006 and since then has been carrying out transnational investigative reporting and promoting technology-based approaches to exposing organized crime and corruption worldwide. In the work of Kouzes and Posner, those leadership principles are rebranded and molded into a corporate vernacular. Individuals who share those feelings may be surprised to hear that they know more about English than they think. The Office of External Enforcement (OEE) supports CRC's responsibility to assess, investigate and/or adjudicate complaints alleging discrimination, and/or administers and enforces the laws that apply to: recipients of financial assistance under Title I of the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA); First, such a chain of command would enable police services to trace back the ultimate responsibility for a police act or omission (CoE, 2001, article 17). Investigations of complaints should be conducted by a police unit or officers that are reasonably independent of the police officer involved in the incident which led to the complaint (OSCE, 2009, para. (For additional information, see the E4J If well promoted, a code of ethics setting out integrity standards has the potential to: give guidance for action to police officers facing ethical dilemmas; contribute to a better identification, analysis and resolution of ethical problems; and assist the exercise of leadership and management throughout the organization and enhance public trust in the police (CoE, 2001, Explanatory Memorandum). Partnerships and accountability contribute to this accomplishment. Depending on the outcomes of inspections, the executive may decide on changing or introducing new policies to address systemic issues and enhance police accountability. Enters, maintains and retrieves data in various law enforcement computer systems; creates and updates format, documents and manuals as necessary. D. External auditing. 0000001404 00000 n Popular culture often portrays abusive police supervisors as the norm. Receives, researches, processes and issues permits, licenses, analyzes information for legal forms and reports; reviews documents for accuracy and completeness prior to forwarding to appropriate . Internal is how we see ourselves. Secondly, most MPs do not have the substantive expertise that is necessary for effectively overseeing the police. Leadership Spotlight: Are You An Approachable Leader? Often, slang words and colloquialisms, such as has went, dont have none, and me and my partner arrived, slip into reports and other documents. LEISI serves as an active advocate in support of law enforcement information sharing both internal and external to DHS. 1 Internal Complaints In sum, a well-established chain of command with managers having clearly defined supervisory roles, and effective monitoring mechanisms also contributes to police accountability 'during the act'. Dictionary by Merriam-Webster: America's most-trusted online dictionary. This is a dynamic that has implications for all levels within a department, including informal leaders impacting new officers and officers impacting the community. Copyright 2023 2) People know more than they think they do. In democratic societies some of these tasks are undertaken in consultation with the police; in highly decentralized countries certain tasks can be completely delegated to the police. Nevertheless, the European Code of Police Ethics (2010) is widely recognized and promoted as a model code internationally. Therefore, external control and oversight actors should be actively involved in all stages of accountability before, during, after the act. While data of this kind would need to be interpreted carefully, disproportion of this kind may 'raise a flag' for senior management to look more closely into stop and search data, to talk to the officers involved regarding the grounds and justifications for the disproportionate policing, and if necessary revise standard operational practices and guidelines, to prevent bias-based profiling. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Volume 63|Issue 3 Article 11 1973 Organizational Aspects of Internal and External Review of the Police James R. Hudson Follow this and additional works at:https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/jclc Part of theCriminal Law Commons,Criminology Commons, and theCriminology and Criminal Justice Commons Concept, Values and Origin of Restorative Justice, 2. Harare Resolution on the Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials (2001), adopted by the Southern African Regional Police Chiefs Cooperation Organisation (SARPCCO); and the [7]Moreover, morale suffers, retention suffers and an organization can be hurt for years as the foreseeable result of suppressing alternative approaches to problems, a direct causation of the inability or unwillingness to hear opinions/feedback and make course corrections. The judiciary is an indispensable element of a police accountability system, whereby judges and prosecutors have statutory powers to exercise ex-ante, ongoing and ex-post control and oversight of the police. The point: credibility is the key. Additionally, please discuss when one might be completed as opposed to the other. Oversight agencies can help improve the quality of the department's internal investigations of alleged misconduct. There are certain risks and ethical considerations associated with the media investigating and reporting on police action and potential abuses. trailer << /Size 107 /Info 88 0 R /Encrypt 92 0 R /Root 91 0 R /Prev 168412 /ID[<0d10ed90d615244f61115859d6fa4fb4><16a31fff74d287cc94d59822be2506a7>] >> startxref 0 %%EOF 91 0 obj << /Type /Catalog /Pages 85 0 R /Metadata 89 0 R /PageLabels 83 0 R >> endobj 92 0 obj << /Filter /Standard /R 2 /O ( UV.`Dz-#_m_}g) /U (c,2se? %3MxcC7&) /P -12 /V 1 /Length 40 >> endobj 105 0 obj << /S 421 /L 484 /Filter /FlateDecode /Length 106 0 R >> stream Evidence; Examination of Witnesses. KouzesJM, Posner BZ. media. Officer Survival Spotlight: Circumstances and the Deadly Mix. Necessary measures shall be put in place to safeguard the rights of the accused police officer, particularly the right to be notified on the investigation, right to legal aid, right to be heard and defence (PACE, 1979, articles 7-9). promptly after the incident, and allow for Precisely for such situations, police services need to establish a code of ethics which sets overarching integrity standards that are built upon the values of impartiality, fairness, equality, justice, honesty as well as principles for respecting, human rights and dignity (Costa and Thorens, 2015). Police Quarterly, 2017, 20(1), 3-23. So, it seems natural to think that diagramming sentences, identifying parts of speech, and conducting similar tasks will sharpen writing skills. Internal stakeholders are people who are already committed to serving an organization as board members, staff, volunteers, and donors. and manufacturers. If one embarks on a trip as the navigator of a ship departing from London and bound for New York, it is their job (as well as everyone elses on the ship) to sound the alarm if the ship is off course. The Department of Justice informs us that procedural justice speaks to four principles, often referred to as the four pillars: fairness in the processes, transparency in actions, opportunities for voice, and impartiality in decision making. [3]Violations of these pillars have predictably led to a mistrust of the police by community members especially by those community members who have experienced such violations, either personally or vicariously. The police officer receiving the complaint should be legally obliged to accept and record that complaint. This warning, in various forms, advises law enforcement employees that they must answer questions posed by investigators or face the possibility of administrative sanction, including job loss. Police services should actively inform the general public, as well as those in contact with the criminal justice system - witnesses, victims, and offenders- about how they can complain (Bryne and Priestley, 2017, p. 11). Acquittal of suspects led to large rallies, the resignation of the chief public prosecutor, and the establishment of the ad hoc parliamentary commission. Effective Communication. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 2018,46(8), 1317-1329. Most important, active learning builds intellect more effectively than if someone else does the work. Internal reporting and disciplinary mechanisms (DCAF, 2015a). More Command Staff - Chiefs / Sheriffs News, More Command Staff - Chiefs / Sheriffs Videos. It is distilled into five practices of exemplary leadership and 10 behavioral commitments that support those practices. 1 William L. Harvey, Leadership Quotes and Police Truisms, Law Enforcement Technology, July 1, 2015, 44, accessed December 9, 2016, http://let.epubxp.com/i/536817-jul-2015/12.2 Rebecca Kanable, Getting it Right: Convictions Require Good Report Writing, Law Enforcement Technology, September 1, 2005, accessed December 9, 2016, https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-137631960.html.3 Amaury Murgado, How to Master Report Writing, Police: The Law Enforcement Magazine, November 22, 2010, accessed December 9, 2016, http://www.policemag.com/channel/patrol/articles/2010/11/report-writing.aspx. Watching a marked unit running 90 mph on the interstate elicits an immediate and predictable belief by those who witness it as an abuse of position, howeverbenign officers may think such behavior is. As per United Nations standards, it is good practice "to disclose the number of complaints received, the nature of the complaints and their consequences, including numbers of officers that have been disciplined and criminally prosecuted" (UNODC, 2011, p. 38). Helicopter, Community Outreach Spotlight: Cops and Clergy Breakfast, Leadership Spotlight: Information Output vs. The previous subsections referred to the potential challenges encountered when allegations of police misconduct are investigated internally by the police or executive bodies; and overseen by the judiciary and the legislature. Nonetheless, professional standards are not enough. Victims of Crime and International Law, 1. Leadership Spotlight: Leading with the Pen - The Handwritten Note, Leadership Spotlight: Leading Through Tragedy, Officer Wellness Spotlight: Police Chaplains - An Integral Part of Law Enforcement, Leadership Spotlight: Leading At-Risk Employees - Law Enforcement and the Addiction Crisis, Forensic Spotlight: Digital Forensic Examination - A Case Study, Leadership Spotlight: Leading By Addressing the Cyber Threat, Community Outreach Spotlight: Friday Night Lights, Leadership Spotlight: The Responsibilities of Command, Officer Survival Spotlight: The 4,000-Pound Bullet, Leadership Spotlight: Importance of the Little Things, Community Outreach Spotlight: P.L.A.Y. QPX%li8}D5oPB~\r. Key Components of the Right of Access to Legal Aid, 4. These principles inspire confidence, emulation and loyalty if practiced by those with positional authority or informal leadership roles.

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